Juan Pablo Medina1, Verónica Hael Conrad2*

 

1Kaffe Bueno ApS, Gribskov, Denmark

2Instituto Superior de Investigaciones Biológicas (INSIBIO), Universidad Nacional de Tucumán (UNT), Tucumán, Argentina

 

*Correspondence to: Verónica Hael Conrad, PhD, Scientific Writer and Consultant, Instituto Superior de Investigaciones Biológicas (INSIBIO), Universidad Nacional de Tucumán (UNT), Chacabuco 461, San Miguel de Tucumán, Tucumán 4000ILI, Argentina; Email: contact@vhcscientificwriter.com

 

DOI: 10.53964/jmab.2022023

 

Abstract

This review put insight into information about biological products used for oil palm production worldwide, particularly in Colombia. Biological products are drawing the next wave of sustainable agriculture in general and palm oil production in particular. The Colombian palm sector is committed to environmentally responsible farming and is a pioneer within America in oil palm certification under roundtable on sustainable palm oil standards. As the global demand for organic food and the awareness of environmental care increases, so does the market for biological products. Biological products help protect oil palm crops against pests and diseases, enhancing plants' growth, health, yield, and profitability. Numerous biological control agents (BCAs) and biofertilizer supplies have been approved and are part of the supply chain for oil palm production. This review offers a comprehensive list of BCAs and biofertilizer supplies commercially available for palm oil production. Thus, it helps cater to the needs of oil palm farmers, agriculturists, and everyone committed to working towards more sustainable oil palm production worldwide.

 

Keywords: biological control agents, biofertilizers, oil palm, Elaeis guineensis, sustainable agriculture

 

1 INTRODUCTION

Agriculture is one of the economic pillars in many developing countries[1,2]. Agriculture is becoming increasingly dependent on chemical pesticides and fertilizers to fulfil the expanding food needs of a growing world population[2]. However, they can negatively affect the environment and human and animal health if misused or used excessively[3]. There are significant initiatives to stake out more sustainable agriculture; the most important one is innovations to meet the food needs of a growing world population, the increasing awareness of environmental protection, and the willingness of consumers worldwide to have access to healthier foods. Biological products offer a way to address these issues and are indeed drawing the next wave of sustainable agricultural productivity.

 

The term "biological products" or simply "biologicals" generally describes everything from natural compounds to micro and macro-organisms that help protect crops from pests and diseases while enhancing plants' growth, health, crop yield, and profitability. Biological products consist of beneficial microorganisms, macroorganisms, microbially- and plant-derived compounds, semiochemicals, and microbially- and plants-derived extracts[4,5]. They are typically categorized according to agricultural use as biological control agents (BCAs), biostimulants and biofertilizers[5].

 

Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) is the world's most important and productive vegetable oil crop. Its production is around 75 million tonnes annually, and the global production area is approximately 20 million hectares (ha)[6]. It has seen a growing demand and a significant increase in global production in the last 30 years, to which the oil palm industry responded by expanding the planted area. However, the expansion has been associated with deforestation, biodiversity loss, ecosystem services, and contributions to greenhouse gas emissions[7-10]. In addition, the use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers -of which around 80% are run-off into land and water ecosystems, discharges of mill effluent, wastewater and empty fruit bunch disposal, gasoline use in weed cutters, and glyphosate use for weed control are some other negative impacts associated with oil palm cultivation[3,11-13]. Several efforts are underway to respond to the calls for more responsible and sustainable oil palm production, including the use of biological products.

 

This review aims to bring up an updated view of biocontrol agents and biofertilizers as a sustainable practice for oil palm production worldwide, particularly in Colombia. Likewise, it aims to gather practical information on commercially available biological supplies to help cater to the needs of Colombians palm oil farmers and agriculturists, the agricultural and plant biology communities in general, and everyone committed to working towards more sustainable agriculture worldwide.

 

2 PALM OIL

2.1 Policies and Efforts Underway toward Sustainable Production Worldwide

Four countries-Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Colombia, constitutes 90% of oil palm world production[14] (Table 1). Few tropical plants have become as necessary as palm oil, which is now the main provider of edible oils, fats, and a variety of essential supplies, leading to the use of biomass and oleo-chemistry and the creation of alternative energy sources for biofuel-based diesel machinery and engines. On average, one hectare planted with oil palm produces six and ten times more oil than other oilseeds per year[15].

 

Table 1. The Top Five World Oil Palm Producers

Notes: Data was updated on July 2022. References: MT/y, million tonnes/year. Source: Palm oil, USDA (2022).

 

However, concerns and calls for more responsible and sustainable oil palm production are arising. As a result, various organizations, standards and policies have been developed, such as the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) and the global Roundtable on sustainable palm oil (RSPO), among others[13]. Likewise, several efforts are underway, such as improving smallholder inclusiveness, increasing crop yield to minimize land use, expanding plantations in areas with low carbon stock, avoiding deforestation of natural forests, using biodiesel as a substitute for fossil fuels, producing biochar at the time of replanting, and increasing the use of BCAs and biofertilizers[8,12,16-19].

 

In this vein, RSPO and IFOAM certifications can make important contributions by engaging smallholders and even small-scale growers to adopt more sustainable, resilient, and responsible practices. For example, a case study was performed in Colombia to help smallholders to get their oil palm productions certified[13]. Interestingly, certified producers reported significantly lower agrochemical use, more on-farm conservation areas, reduced hunting, and better worker pay. The most notable difference between certified and non-certified groups was agrochemicals: 19% of certified producers used fertilizers, and 9% used pesticides, compared to 98% and 65% of non-certified producers[13,20]. This can be attributed to organic practices implemented on certified farms, representing a positive case study demonstrating that building and consolidating sustainable oil palm production is possible.

 

Global efforts toward sustainable agriculture are reflected in the continuous growth of the biological products market, estimated at USD 12.90 billion in 2022, and projected to reach USD 24.6 billion by 2027, growing at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 13.7%[21].

 

2.2 Sustainable Production in Colombia

Colombia is the largest palm and palm kernel oil producer in America and the fourth largest globally[14]. Palm and palm kernel oils represent 94.1% of the Colombian national production of oils and fats in the local market and about 66% of the consumption of these products[15]. Palm oil is cultivated along 21 departments including 160 'Municipios', extending throughout 516.961 planted ha, generating 170.794 direct and indirect job positions[20,22].

 

The Colombian palm sector is committed to environmentally responsible farming, tending to a deforestation-free development, preserving biodiversity, and being in harmony with the natural riches of the palm-growing regions[15]. In this line, Colombia had 62.102 oil palm-certified hectares by May 31, 2019, according to RSPO[23]. This sustainable tendency -which has even been adopted by the oil palm industry in Latin America, contrasts with the trajectory followed by Southeast Asia producers. The most striking difference is in land-use changes during plantation expansion. This is commonly related to forest clearance in Malaysia and Indonesia, whereas plantations in Latin America are mostly established on previously cleared land, such as cattle pastures[13,24].

 

2.3 Main Pests and Diseases Affecting Oil Palm in Colombia

Oil palm, however, remains prone to a variety of pests and diseases, such as insects, bacteria, fungi, and vertebrates[25]. Some of the main threats affecting this crop in Colombia include lethal yellowing, red ring disease, beetle pests, root borer, bud rot, and sudden wilt, as reported by Cenipalma (Table 2)[26-28].

 

Table 2. Main Diseases and Pests Affecting Palm Oil in Colombia

Notes: This list was prepared based on the main pests and diseases reported by Cenipalma (https://www.cenipalma.org/sanidad), an institution that promotes the sustainable development of palm oil agribusiness in Colombia. References: n.f., not found any reference.

 

2.4 BCAs

BCAs encompass a diverse group of product technologies aiming to control plant pathogens and pests population via various modes of action. BCAs include microorganisms, like bacteria and fungi, which are known as microbial BCAs (MBCAs); beneficial macroorganisms, like predatory mites; biological compounds, like endotoxins, phytohormones, or plant- and microbially-derived elicitors, etc. It also includes microbially- and plant-derived extracts; biochemical compounds, like abscisic acid, 9,10-anthraquinone, ammonium bicarbonate, etc.; and semiochemicals, like pheromones[4,5,29-31]. BCAs offer multiple benefits for growers, consumers, and the entire food chain, compared to conventional agrochemicals (Table 3).

 

Table 3. Benefits of Biological Control Agents (BCAs) over Conventional Agrochemicals

Notes: BCAs, biological control agents; EPA, the US Environmental Protection Agency.

 

Many MBCAs and elicitors have been reported for their capacity to induce immune responses in a diverse range of plants and crops[30,32-43], including oil palm, which can respond faster and stronger to subsequent biotic and abiotic stresses[33,42-49]. Other MBCAs act via nutrient or space competition or other mechanisms modulating the growth conditions for the pathogen[30,31,50]. At the same time, antagonists act through hyper-parasitism and antibiosis, directly interfering with the pathogen[51-53].

 

In oil palm, the fungus Metarhizium anisopliae efficiently controls adults of Haplaxius crudus, the main vector of the lethal wilt disease[54-57] (Table 2). Using pheromones is one of the best tools to combat the weevils Rhynchophorus palmarum, Dynamis borassi, Metamasius hemipterus, and Limnobaris calandriformis, the vectors causing the red ring in palms[58]. The beetle pest, caused by the rhinoceros beetle Strategus aloeus[59,60], is mainly controlled by conventional pesticides and old palm removal in renewal lots; some attempts to use entomopathogenic nematodes were also performed[61]. Some attempts were performed using Trichoderma isolate for the bud rot disease caused by the bacterium Phytophthora palmivora[62,63]. However, the best current option is an integrated crop management system that includes cultivar selection, proper drainage, good fertilization, regular monitoring, infected tissue removal, and destruction of infected tissue or plants (Table 2).

 

2.5 Biofertilizers

Biofertilizers encompass a diverse group of product technologies aiming to improve plant nutrient-use efficiency, enhance plant growth and health, and enrich the soil-especially the rhizosphere, in all kinds of micro- and macro-nutrients. They include bacterial bioinoculants, like plant growth promoting bacteria (PGPB); fungal bioinoculants, like arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi (AMF); biochemical materials, like organic acids, fulvic acids, amino acids, and humic acids; extracts or amendments, like seaweeds, organic matters, chitosan, laminarins, alginates, etc. Biofertilizers also include others, like protein hydrolysates, peptides, beneficial elements (Si, Na, Co, Ca, etc.), and inorganic salts, among many others[5]. This review will refer to "biofertilizers" as biological products with biostimulant and biofertilizer features. Biofertilizers offer multiple benefits for growers, consumers, and the entire food chain, compared to conventional fertilizers (Table 4).

 

Table 4. Benefits of Biofertilizers over Chemical Fertilizers

 

PGPB encompasses a wide range of bacteria with diverse mechanisms of action that enhance the bioavailability of nutrients, which benefits plant nutrition and soil quality. They were reported to enhance growth, and nutrient uptake in oil palm, as well as improve soil quality and help to maintain or improve the beneficial microorganisms in the soil while reducing the use of chemical fertilizers[12,64-71]. Numerous pre-nursery, nurseries, greenhouse, and even field studies have been performed. For instance, the application of a biofertilizer made up of a consortium of bacteria and fungi, including Proteobacteria, Bacillus, Providencia, Phyllobacterium and Sphingobacterium bacteria, Trichoderma, Antrodia, Pichia, Pycnoporus, and Phanerochaete fungi, led to the increase of vegetative measurements and nutrients uptake in palm oil seedlings when combined with a reduced dose of conventional fertilizer[65]. Similarly, palm oil seedlings grown with endophyte nitrogen fixing-PGPB bacteria were significantly taller and bigger in girth size. They presented a higher dry weight of shoots and roots and chlorophyll content compared to control seedlings[72]. Previous studies reported that the application of biofertilizers (one constituted by a consortium of bacteria and the other by a consortium of bacteria, fungi, and yeast, integrated with a low rate of chemical fertilizer) led to better palm oil growth, a balanced and sufficient nutrient availability, and help to maintain the survivability of beneficial microorganisms in the soil under greenhouse conditions[64]. Furthermore, Veeramachaneni and Ramachandrudu (2020)[73] demonstrated that bioinoculants, namely Azotobacter chroococcum, Azospirillum brasilense, Bacillus megaterium, Frateuria aurantia, and Glomus aggregatum, enhanced palm oil seedling growth through increased microbial population and enzyme activity in the rhizosphere, allowing to reduce up to 25% the recommended dose of chemical fertilizers.

 

As PGPB-based biofertilizers, organic amendments and fertilizers can also improve oil palm growth, health, and yield throughout the different stages of production. Some interesting approaches reported positive effects in raising oil palm seedlings and field-established plants in organic-based substrates like Klasmann, coconut husk, coconut husk: soil (1:1)[74], biochar, and compost oil palm empty fruit bunch (EFB)[67,75-80]. It is exciting how the exploitation of such organic wastes may promote better management of oil palm plantations.

 

3 BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTS APPROVED FOR THEIR USE IN PALM OIL IN COLOMBIA

Contributing to sustainable oil palm production, this review aims to gather practical information about the bioproducts effectively used in oil palm for their biocontrol, biostimulator, and biofertilization features. An exhaustive list was performed based on microbial-based biological supplies recommended specifically for oil palm (Elaeis guineensis), as stated in the respective technical data sheets (Table 5). For this purpose, numerous online vademecum available online were used, such as 'Portal TecnoAgrícola'[81], 'croper.com'[82], and the CABI BioProtection Portal[83]. The latter is a useful and free tool to discover natural, registered biocontrol, and biopesticides products that growers and advisors can use for organic agriculture or in integrated practices management worldwide.

 

Table 5. Biological Control Agents (BCAs) and Biofertilizers for the Sustainable Production of Palm Oil

Notes: This list was based on an exhaustive search of microbial-based biological supplies recommended specifically for Palm oil (Elaeis guineensis), as stated in the respective technical data sheets. It is not considered complete; any omissions or errors are regretted. Furthermore, indications of these supplies by the authors do not signify an endorsement of the companies. References: BCAs, biological control agents; n.s., not specified; n.c., it does not contain; PGPB, plant growth promoting bacteria; PGPM, plant growth promoting microorganisms; AMF, arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi; sp/g of product; sp/kg, spores/kilogram; N, nitrogen; P, phosphorous; K, potassium; Mg, magnesium; Ca, calcium; Si, silicon.

 

4 CONCLUSION

Biological products are drawing the next wave of sustainable oil palm production worldwide. As the global demand for organic food and the awareness of environmental care increases, so does the market for biological products. This review brings out information about biological products in general, oil palm production worldwide, and Colombia in particular. It offers a comprehensive list of commercially available BCAs and biofertilizer supplies to help cater to comprehend the needs of palm oil farmers and agriculturists and everyone who is committed to working towards more sustainable oil palm production worldwide.

 

Acknowledgements

Not applicable.

 

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declared no conflict of interest.

 

Author Contribution

Hael Conrad V wrote, edited, and proofread the manuscript. Juan PM critically reviewed the manuscript.

 

Abbreviation List

AMF, Arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi

BCAs, Biological control agents

Ha, Hectare

IFOAM, International federation of organic agriculture movements

MBCAs, Microbial biological control agents

PGPB, Plant growth promoting bacteria

PGPM, Plant growth promoting microorganisms

RSPO, Roundtable on sustainable palm oil

 

References

[1] Santos VB, Araújo ASF, Leite LFC et al. Soil microbial biomass and organic matter fractions during transition from conventional to organic farming systems. Geoderma, 2012; 170: 227-231. DOI: 10.1016/j.geoderma.2011.11.007

[2] Hoffmann U. Assuring food security in developing countries under the challenges of climate change: Key trade and development issues of a fundamental transformation of agriculture. Proceedings of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development; 2011.

[3] United Nations Environment Programme. Fertilizers: Challenges and solutions. Accessed July 17, 2022. Available at https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/fertilizers-challenges-and-solutions

[4] AGRICEN. Growing for the future with Ag biologicals. Accessed July 11, 2022. Available at https://www.agricen.com/hubfs/03-20%20Agricen_Sustainability_WP_v14.pdf?hsCtaTracking=926c4da8-76f9-4d2a-9d1f-f71ffac011d7%7Cf48732b5-d4b1-4526-a701-581533a977ba

[5] AGRICEN. Agricultural biologicals. Accessed July 11, 2022. Available at https://www.agricen.com/agricultural-biologicals#:~:text=One%20of%20the%20fastest%2Dgrowing,insects%20or%20other%20organic%20matter

[6] Wageningen University & Research (WUR). Oil palm-overview. Accessed July 11, 2022. Available at https://perennialcrops.wur.nl/oil-palm

[7] FAO. Strong policies, certification key to sustainable oil palm production. Accessed July 12, 2022. Available at https://www.fao.org/forestry/news/94861/en/

[8] Hoffmann MP, Donough CR, Cook SE et al. Yield gap analysis in oil palm: Framework development and application in commercial operations in Southeast Asia. Agric Syst, 2017; 151: 12-19. DOI: 10.1016/j.agsy.2016.11.005

[9] Koh LP, Wilcove DS. Is oil palm agriculture really destroying tropical biodiversity? Conserv Lett, 2008; 1: 60-64. DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-263X.2008.00011.x

[10] Carlson KM, Curran LM, Asner GP et al. Carbon emissions from forest conversion by Kalimantan oil palm plantations. Nat Clim Change, 2013; 3: 283-287. DOI: 10.1038/nclimate1702

[11] Saswattecha K, Kroeze C, Jawjit W et al. Assessing the environmental impact of palm oil produced in Thailand. J Clean Prod, 2015; 100: 150-169. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.03.037

[12] Ayompe LM, Schaafsma M, Egoh BN. Towards sustainable palm oil production: The positive and negative impacts on ecosystem services and human wellbeing. J Clean Prod, 2021; 278: 123914. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123914

[13] Jezeer R, Nick P. Exploring inclusive palm oil production. ETFRN News, 2019; 59.

[14] USDA. Palm oil. Accessed July 12, 2022. Available at https://ipad.fas.usda.gov/cropexplorer/cropview/commodityView.aspx?cropid=4243000

[15] National Federation of Oil Palm Growers (Fedepalma). The oil palm agribusiness in Colombia. Accessed July 3, 2022. Available at https://repositorio.fedepalma.org/handle/123456789/141070#page=1

[16] Garnett T, Appleby MC, Balmford A et al. Sustainable intensification in agriculture: Premises and policies. Science, 2013; 341: 33-34. DOI: 10.1126/science.1234485

[17] Permpool N, Bonnet S, Gheewala SH. Greenhouse gas emissions from land use change due to oil palm expansion in Thailand for biodiesel production. J Clean Prod, 2016; 134: 532-538. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.05.048

[18] Gérard A, Wollni M, Hölscher D et al. Oil-palm yields in diversified plantations: Initial results from a biodiversity enrichment experiment in Sumatra, Indonesia. Agric Ecosyst Environ, 2017; 240: 253-260. DOI: 10.1016/j.agee.2017.02.026

[19] Rivera-Méndez YD, Rodríguez DT, Romero HM. Carbon footprint of the production of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) fresh fruit bunches in Colombia. J Clean Prod, 2017; 149: 743-750. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.02.149

[20] Fedepalma. Sustainability report of the colombian palm oil sector 2018-2021: Main results of our sustainability efforts. Accessed November 14, 2022. Available at https://web.fedepalma.org/sites/default/files/files/Sustainability%20report%202022.pdf

[21] Markets Research Report. Agricultural biologicals market by function, product type (microbials, macrobials, semiochemicals, natural products), mode of application (foliar spray, soil and seed treatment), crop type and region - Global forecast to 2027. Accessed July 11, 2022. Available at https://www.marketsandmarkets.com/Market-Reports/agricultural-biological-market-100393324.html

[22] Fedepalma. Palm sector statistical information system (SISPA) [in Spanish]. Accessed July 13, 2022. Available at http://sispa.fedepalma.org/sispaweb/default.aspx

[23] RSPO. RSPO: 10 years of presence in Latin America [in Spanish]. Accessed July 13, 2022. Available at https://www.rspo.org/publications/download/b6862cd949f84cc

[24] Furumo PR, Aide TM. Characterizing commercial oil palm expansion in Latin America: Land use change and trade. Environ Res Lett, 2017; 12: 024008. DOI: 10.1088/1748-9326/aa5892

[25] Gitau CW, Gurr GM, Dewhurst CF et al. Insect pests and insect-vectored diseases of palms. Aust J Entomol, 2009; 48: 328-342. DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-6055.2009.00724.x

[26] CENIPALMA. Health of the palm [in Spanish]. Accessed July 18, 2022. Available at https://www.cenipalma.org/sanidad/

[27] Aldana de la Torre C, Aldana de la Torre R, Calvache G et al. La Palma de Aceite plague Manual in Colombia [in Spanish]. Accessed July 18, 2022. Available at http://repositorio.fedepalma.org/handle/123456789/107711

[28] Aldana de la Torre R, Bustillo A, Montes-Bazurto L et al. Pocket guide for the recognition of the most common pests in La Palma de Aceite [in Spanish]. Accessed July 18, 2022. Available at https://web.fedepalma.org/sites/default/files/files/Cenipalma/Informe-de-labores-2018/Guia--bolsillo-para-el-reconocimiento-de-las-plagas-mas-frecuentes-del-cultivo-de-la-palma-de%20aceite-2018.pdf

[29] Bayer Crop Science. Understanding biologicals: the future of crop protection. Accessed July 11, 2022. Available at https://cropscience.bayer.co.uk/blog/articles/2020/09/understanding-biologicals/

[30] Köhl J, Kolnaar R, Ravensberg WJ. Mode of action of microbial biological control agents against plant diseases: Relevance beyond efficacy. Front Plant Sci, 2019; 10: 845. DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2019.00845

[31] Heimpel GE, Mills N. Biological control-Ecology and applications. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2017. DOI: 10.1017/9781139029117

[32] Gully K. The plant immune system: Induction, memory and de-priming of defense responses by endogenous, exogenous and synthetic elicitors [PhD thesis]. Angers, France: Université d’Angers; 2019.

[33] Wiesel L, Newton AC, Elliott I et al. Molecular effects of resistance elicitors from biological origin and their potential for crop protection. Front Plant Sci. 2014; 5: 655. DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2014.00655

[34] Chaliha C, Rugen MD, Field RA et al. Glycans as modulators of plant defense against filamentous pathogens. Front Plant Sci, 2018; 9: 928. DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2018.00928

[35] Maffei ME, Arimura GI, Mithöfer A. Natural elicitors, effectors and modulators of plant responses. Nat Prod Rep, 2012; 29: 1288-1303. DOI: 10.1039/c2np20053h

[36] Enebe MC, Babalola OO. The impact of microbes in the orchestration of plants' resistance to biotic stress: A disease management approach. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol, 2019; 103: 9-25. DOI: 10.1007/s00253-018-9433-3

[37] Henry G, Thonart P, Ongena M. PAMPs, MAMPs, DAMPs and others: An update on the diversity of plant immunity elicitors. BASE, 2012; 16: 257-268.

[38] Pršić J, Ongena M. Elicitors of plant immunity triggered by beneficial bacteria. Front Plant Sci, 2020; 11: 594530. DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2020.594530

[39] Boller T, Felix G. A renaissance of elicitors: perception of microbe-associated molecular patterns and danger signals by pattern-recognition receptors. Annu Rev Plant Biol, 2009; 60: 379-406. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.arplant.57.032905.105346

[40] Chalfoun NR, Grellet-Bournonville CF, Martinez-Zamora MG et al. Purification and characterization of AsES protein: A subtilisin secreted by acremonium strictum is a novel plant defense elicitor. J Biol Chem, 2013; 288: 14098-14113. DOI: 10.1074/jbc.M112.429423

[41] Meena M, Yadav G, Sonigra P et al. Role of elicitors to initiate the induction of systemic resistance in plants to biotic stress. Plant Stress, 2022; 5: 100103. DOI: 10.1016/j.stress.2022.100103

[42] Pieterse CMJ, Zamioudis C, Berendsen RL et al. induced systemic resistance by beneficial microbes. Annu Rev Phytopathol, 2014; 52: 347-375. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-phyto-082712-102340

[43] Conrath U, Beckers GJM, Langenbach CJG et al. Priming for enhanced defense. Annu Rev Phytopathol, 2015; 53: 97-119. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-phyto-080614-120132

[44] Conrath U, Beckers GJM, Flors V et al. Priming: Getting ready for battle. Mol Plant-Microbe Interact, 2006; 19: 1062-1071. DOI: 10.1094/MPMI-19-1062

[45] Pastor V, Luna DE, Mauch-Mani B et al. Primed plants do not forget. Environ Exp Bot, 2013; 94: 46-56. DOI: 10.1016/j.envexpbot.2012.02.013

[46] Luna DE. Using green vaccination to brighten the agronomic future. Outlooks Pest Manag, 2016; 27: 136-141. DOI: 10.1564/v27_jun_10

[47] Conrath U. Molecular aspects of defence priming. Trends Plant Sci, 2011; 16: 524-531. DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2011.06.004

[48] Jaskiewicz M, Conrath U, Peterhänsel C. Chromatin modification acts as a memory for systemic acquired resistance in the plant stress response. EMBO Rep, 2011; 12: 50-55. DOI: 10.1038/embor.2010.186

[49] Mauch-Mani B, Baccelli I, Luna E et al. Defense priming: An adaptive part of induced resistance. Annu Rev Plant Biol, 2017; 68: 485-512. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-042916-041132

[50] Spadaro D, Droby S. Development of biocontrol products for postharvest diseases of fruit: The importance of elucidating the mechanisms of action of yeast antagonists. Trends Food Sci Technol, 2016; 47: 39-49. DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2015.11.003

[51] Raaijmakers JM, Mazzola M. Diversity and natural functions of antibiotics produced by beneficial and plant pathogenic bacteria. Annu Rev Phytopathol, 2012; 50: 403-424. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-phyto-081211-172908

[52] Ghorbanpour M, Omidvari M, Abbaszadeh Dahaji P et al. Mechanisms underlying the protective effects of beneficial fungi against plant diseases. Biol Control, 2018; 117: 147-157. DOI: 10.1016/j.biocontrol.2017.11.006

[53] Karlsson M, Atanasova L, Jensen DF et al. Necrotrophic mycoparasites and their genomes. Microbiol Spectr, 2017; 5: 5-2. DOI: 10.1128/microbiolspec.FUNK-0016-2016

[54] Tiago PV, Oliveira NT, Lima EÁLA. Biological insect control using Metarhizium anisopliae: Morphological, molecular, and ecological aspects. Cienc Rural, 2014; 44: 645-651. DOI: 10.1590/S0103-84782014000400012

[55] Rosero Guerrero M, Bustillo Pardey AE, Morales Rodríguez A. Efficacy of Metarhizium anisopliae to control adults of Haplaxius crudus (Van Duzee) (Hemiptera: Cixiidae), vector of lethal wilt disease of oil palm in Colombia. Int J Trop Insect Sci, 2021; 41: 503-509. DOI: 10.1007/s42690-020-00234-4

[56] Sullivan CF, Parker BL, Skinner M. A review of commercial metarhizium- and beauveria-based biopesticides for the biological control of ticks in the USA. Insects, 2022; 13: 260. DOI: 10.3390/insects13030260

[57] Bustillo A, Arango C. Best practices to stop the advance of lethal wilt in oil palm plantations in Colombia. Rev Palmas, 2016; 37: 75-90.

[58] Borrero-Echeverry F, Barreto-Triana N, Aragon S et al. Pheromones in insect control. Biol Contr Ag, 2018; 1: 410-453.

[59] Ahumada ML, Calvache HH, Cruz MA et al. Strategus aloeus (L.). (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae): biology and behavior in Puerto Wilches (Santander) [in Spanish]. Revista Palmas, 1995; 16: 9-16.

[60] Montes-Bazurto LS, Bustillo-Pardey AE, Rodriguez MA. Strategus aloeus (coleoptera: scarabaeidae) damage and its relationship with rainfall and hybrid oil palm age in Colombia. J Oil Palm Res, 2022; 34: 622-628. DOI: 10.21894/jopr.2022.0009

[61] Gómez A, Sáenz Aponte A. Susceptibility variation to different entomopathogenic nematodes in Strategus aloeus L (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). Springer Plus, 2015; 4: 620. DOI: 10.1186/s40064-015-1412-x

[62] García A. Evaluation of Trichoderma Spp isolations: For the control of phytophthora palmivora causative agent of pudrition del cogollo de la palma de oil [in Spanish] [bachelor’s thesis]. Bogota, Colombia: Corporación Universitaria Minuto de Dios; 2017.

[63] Bustillo A. Biological control of main insect pests in oil palm plantations in Colombia. 14 Simposio de Control Biológico, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, June 14-18, 2015.

[64] Ajeng AA, Abdullah R, Malek MA et al. The Effects of biofertilizers on growth, soil fertility, and nutrients uptake of oil palm (Elaeis Guineensis) under greenhouse conditions. Process, 2020; 8: 1681. DOI: 10.3390/pr8121681

[65] Zainuddin N, Keni MF, Ibrahim SAS. Effect of biofertiliser containing different percentage rates of chemical fertiliser on oil palm seedlings. J Oil Palm Res, 2019; 31: 582-591. DOI: 10.21894/jopr.2019.0053

[66] Zainuddin N, Keni MF, Ibrahim SAS et al. Effect of integrated biofertilizers with chemical fertilizers on the oil palm growth and soil microbial diversity. Biocatal Agric Biotechnol, 2022; 39: 102237. DOI: 10.1016/j.bcab.2021.102237

[67] Zakry FAA, Shamsuddin ZH, Rahim KA et al. Inoculation of Bacillus sphaericus UPMB-10 to young oil palm and measurement of its uptake of fixed nitrogen using the 15N isotope dilution technique. Microbes Environ, 2012; 27: 257-262. DOI: 10.1264/jsme2.ME11309

[68] Amir HG, Shamsuddin ZH, Halimi MS et al. Enhancement in nutrient accumulation and growth of oil palm seedlings caused by PGPR under field nursery conditions. Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal, 2005; 36: 2059-2066. DOI: 10.1080/00103620500194270

[69] Amir HG, Shamsuddin ZH, Halimi MS et al. Effects of Azospirillum inoculation on N2 fixation and growth of oil palm plantlets at nursery stage. J Oil Palm Res, 2001; 13: 42-49.

[70] Om AC, Ghazali AHA, Keng CL et al. Microbial inoculation improves growth of oil palm plants (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.). Trop Life Sci Res, 2009; 20: 71-77.

[71] Lim SL, Subramaniam S, Ishak Z et al. Growth and biochemical profiling of artificially associated micropropagated oil palm plantlets with Herbaspirillum seropedicae. J Plant Interact, 2018; 13: 173-181. DOI: 10.1080/17429145.2018.1451564

[72] Bazilah I, Abd Razak IB, Hajar S et al. The effectiveness of biological nitrogen fixation bacteria on the growth of oil palm seedlings. Accessed July 18, 2022. Available at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337945369_The_Effectiveness_of_Biological_Nitrogen_Fixation_Bacteria_on_the_Growth_of_oil_Palm_Seedlings

[73] Veeramachaneni S, Ramachandrudu K. Changes in growth, microbial and enzyme activities in oil palm nursery in response to bioinoculants and chemical fertilizers. Arch Agron Soil Sci, 2019; 66: 545-558. DOI: 10.1080/03650340.2019.1628343

[74] Mohammad MK, Kamarozaman Aa, Arifin I et al. Evaluation of several planting media for oil palm (Elaies guineensis) seedlings in main nursery. Soil Sci Conf Malaysia, 2012.

[75] Radin R, Abu Bakar R, Ishak CF et al. Biochar-compost mixture as amendment for improvement of polybag-growing media and oil palm seedlings at main nursery stage. Int J Recycl Org Waste Agric, 2017; 7: 11-23. DOI: 10.1007/s40093-017-0185-3

[76] Mahmud MS, Chong KP. Formulation of biofertilizers from oil palm empty fruit bunches and plant growth-promoting microbes: A comprehensive and novel approach towards plant health. J King Saud Univ Sci, 2021; 33: 101647. DOI: 10.1016/j.jksus.2021.101647

[77] Zakri NA, Adam S. A review on the potential of empty fruit bunch (EFB) compost as growing medium for oil palm seedling production. Food Res, 2021; 5: 15-20. DOI: 10.26656/fr.2017.5(S4).003

[78] Adiprasetyo T, Purnomo B, Handajaningsih M et al. The Usage of BIOM3G-biofertilizer to improve and support sustainability of land system of independent oil palm smallholders. H Int J Adv Sci Eng Inf Technol, 2014; 4: 345-348. DOI: 10.18517/ijaseit.4.5.431

[79] Rosenani AB, Rovica R, Cheah PM et al. Growth performance and nutrient uptake of oil palm seedling in prenursery stage as influenced by oil palm waste compost in growing media. Int J Agron, 2016; 2016: 6930735. DOI: 10.1155/2016/6930735

[80] Anyaoha KE, Sakrabani R, Patchigolla K et al. Critical evaluation of oil palm fresh fruit bunch solid wastes as soil amendments: Prospects and challenges. Resour Conserv Recycl, 2018; 136: 399-409. DOI: 10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.04.022

[81] Portal TecnoAgrícola [in Spanish]. Accessed July 18, 2022. Available at https://www.portaltecnoagricola.com/

[82] Bioinsumos. Accessed July 18, 2022. Available at https://croper.com/category/46-bioinsumos

[83] CABI BioProtection Portal. Find bioprotection products for your crop. Accessed July 18, 2022. Available at https://bioprotectionportal.com

 

Copyright © 2022 The Author(s). This open-access article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, sharing, adaptation, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.